Bacteriophage T4 is one of the most common of the viruses that infects Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria that serve as the hosts. To accomplish this feat, phage T4 employs a fascinating nano-scale injection machine to first rupture the host's cell membrane and then inject... click to read more

When engaged in a conflict with another, many animals will behave aggressively. We see it in dogs at the dog park, in fish in a fish tanks, in people with bullies at school, and even flies at a garbage bin. However, precisely what motivates an... click to read more

The function of sleep is still elusive despite the well-known effects of sleep loss or poor-quality sleep on cognitive function and long-term health. When and how long animals (including humans) sleep is determined by, on the one hand, their internal circadian clock, which aligns physiology... click to read more

Cancer, viruses, bacteria, and chemicals are threatening our bodies every day. The weapon our body uses to fight these threats is our immune system. When triggered by the presence of something it perceives as foreign (and therefore danger), our immune system will produce antibodies targeting... click to read more

Organisms face stress daily, and generally, these stressors have some form of negative effect on our physiology. For example, exposure to thermal stress (elevated heat) increases body temperatures, causes loss of cognitive function, and mood changes. Humans have adapted several different methods for dealing with... click to read more