Felids, ranging from domestic cats to majestic tigers and lions, have wielded a profound influence on human culture throughout history. This impact can be traced back to prehistoric times when European foragers shared their environment with large cats like cave lions (Panthera spelaea), which are now extinct. Our evidence of these early interactions comes from cut marks on predators’ bones, intricately carved ivory figurines, and cave paintings from the Upper Paleolithic: a time period during which our species (Homo sapiens) inhabited Europe, which was in the grip of the Ice Age. However, cave lions inhabited Europe long before the arrival of our species, leaving behind subtle traces of encounters with Neanderthals. How Neanderthals and cave lions engaged with each other is often overlooked.

Until recently, these scattered pieces of evidence were viewed as isolated events, with interactions between Neanderthals and cave lions thought to be primarily in competition with each other for food. Our recent study challenges this perspective. 

 

In 2019, during an excavation at Unicorn Cave in central Germany, three cave lion bones were unearthed, dating back over 190,000 years. Among them were two toe bones and a small sesamoid bone. One toe bone displayed distinctive marks, prompting a 3D microscopy analysis to determine whether they were human-made, animal-induced, or occurred after burial. To better understand these cave lion remains, we decided to compare them with other known samples, including a cave lion skeleton from Siegsdorf in Germany. This skeleton, which dates to approximately 48,000 years ago, was discovered in 1985 and first studied in 1992. The skeleton was known to have cut marks from butchering by Neanderthals. However, despite the extensive examination it underwent, researchers had not yet examined in detail how Neanderthals had interacted with it.  

Our comprehensive review revealed new information. We reexamined a puncture mark on the lion's third rib, initially thought to be postmortem carnivore gnawing. Employing 3D microscopy, we measured surface changes, compared features with other carnivore punctures and 'hunting lesions', and conducted linear discriminant analysis. The result indicated the wound matched spear impacts, prompting further analysis through micro-computed tomography scans and digital models to reconstruct the ballistic trajectory. The 3D microscopy analysis of the Unicorn Cave lion's toe bone revealed that the damage on the surface of the bone is most similar to marks created by cutting with a sharp edge. Their shape and other characteristics suggest that the cut marks were produced by a retouched lithic tool, indicating human involvement. This type of tool was also found in the same layer as the bones, reinforcing this interpretation. Because of where these cut marks are, we can see that they resulted from skinning the animal, involving severing the tendons to separate the claw from the rest of the paw. Given the absence of other body parts, it is likely that the lion was skinned elsewhere, and only the pelt with the claws attached was transported into the cave.

Meanwhile, the comparative analysis of the puncture on the lion rib from Siegsdorf showed that it aligns well with injuries caused by spearheads, particularly those with wooden tips, known to be used by Neanderthals. The morphology and placement of the hunting wound allowed for the reconstruction of its ballistic trajectory and the calculation of the kinetic force required for its creation. The results suggest that the puncture resulted from a thrust from a wooden-tipped spear while the lion was lying on its right side. Traces found on different lion bone elements indicate that the lion may have been struck by other projectiles, likely to incapacitate the animal before the fatal blow. Cut marks show that after this fatal wound, the Neanderthals butchered and eviscerated the cave lion. Subsequently, the carcass was abandoned at the site.

 

These discoveries significantly deepen our understanding of Neanderthal behavior, illuminating a wider range of interactions with large predators that extend beyond mere competition. The lion pelt from the Unicorn Cave not only serves as the oldest evidence of Neanderthals using the skin of a large predator but also hints at a nuanced cultural relationship between this human species and cave lions. Similarly, the hunted lion from Siegsdorf provides the earliest direct proof of a large predator kill, showing Neanderthals' impressive hunting capabilities. These behaviors were previously attributed solely to our species, but our study suggests that Neanderthals were equally adept.